Description of the Pest
Several species of whiteflies may infest peppers. Silverleaf whitefly is also known as sweetpotato whitefly B biotype. Proper identification of silverleaf whiteflies and greenhouse whiteflies is important because other whitefly species do not cause economic damage in pepper. Use a hand lens to examine both immatures and adults. Whitefly adults are tiny (0.06 inch, 1.5 mm long), yellowish insects with white wings. Silverleaf whiteflies hold their wings somewhat vertically tilted, or rooflike, over the body; the wings do not meet over the back but have a small space separating them. Greenhouse whitefly adults are very similar in appearance to the silverleaf whitefly but hold their wings flatter over the back and there is no space between the wings where they meet in the center of the back.
Whiteflies are found mostly on the undersides of leaves. They fly readily when plants are disturbed. The tiny, elongated eggs hatch into a first larval stage that has legs and antennae and is mobile. Both legs and antennae are lost after the first molt and subsequent stages remain fixed to the leaf surface. The last nymphal stage, often called the pupa or the red-eye nymph, is the stage that is easiest to identify. Silverleaf whitefly pupae are oval, whitish, and soft. The edge of the pupa tapers down to the leaf surface and has few to no long waxy filaments around the edge. In contrast, greenhouse whitefly pupae have many long waxy filament around the edge and the edge is somewhat vertical where it contacts the leaf surface.
Damage
Whiteflies damage peppers by sucking enormous quantities of sap and covering plants with sticky honeydew. Black sooty mold grows over the honeydew, lowering the photosynthetic capacity of the plant and making the fruit unattractive. Feeding by high populations may result in stunting, poor growth, defoliation, and reduced yields.
Management
Whitefly populations are not consistent from year to year, so monitoring is important in detecting and preventing the development of populations in any given year. In addition, an integrated pest management program for whiteflies includes following good cultural practices, such as host-free periods, conserving natural enemies, and using pesticides only when necessary.
Biological Control
Several wasps, including species in the Encarsia and Eretmocerus genera, parasitize whiteflies. Whitefly nymphs are also preyed upon by bigeyed bugs, lacewing larvae, and lady beetle larvae. Silverleaf whitefly is an introduced pest that has escaped its natural enemies. Some indigenous native parasites and predators do attack it, but do not keep it below damaging numbers. The parasitic wasp, Encarsia formosa, has been used successfully to control greenhouse whitefly in greenhouses or protected crop situations elsewhere in the world where peppers are more commonly grown in this manner.
Cultural Control
The best control for silverleaf whiteflies is to maximize the distance and time interval between host crops. When possible, plant peppers at least one-half mile upwind from key silverleaf whitefly hosts such as melons, cole crops, and cotton. Maintain good sanitation in areas of winter and spring host crops and weeds by destroying and removing all crop residues as soon as possible. Control weeds in noncrop areas including head rows and fallow fields and harvest alfalfa on as short a schedule as possible. In addition, allow the maximum time between silverleaf whitefly host crops and produce vegetables and melons in the shortest season possible.
Adult silverleaf whiteflies are repelled by silver- or aluminum-colored mulches. Place reflective polyethylene mulches on planting beds before seeding or transplanting to significantly reduce rate of colonization by whiteflies and delay the buildup of damaging numbers of whiteflies by 4 to 6 weeks. The mulches lose their effectiveness when more than 60% of the surface is covered by foliage. Therefore, they are effective only for the first few weeks after seedling emergence or transplanting.
Greenhouse whiteflies are often induced by applications of broad-spectrum pesticides. Avoid such materials early in the season.
Organically Acceptable Methods
Cultural and biological control as well as sprays of insecticidal soaps (potassium salts of fatty acids) and certain oil sprays are acceptable for use on organically certified produce.
Monitoring and Treatment Decisions
Routinely check field margins for whiteflies; these areas are usually infested first. Be especially alert for rapid population buildup when nearby host crops are in decline. During these critical periods, check pepper fields twice weekly. Sticky traps placed for aphids, thrips, or tomato psyllid, may be useful in detecting initial whitefly migrations into fields.
Allow natural enemies an opportunity to control light silverleaf whitefly infestations. If higher populations are present at the field margins than the field centers, then treat only the field margins. This approach will reduce treatment costs and help preserve natural enemies in the field. The treatment threshold for silverleaf whitefly is about 4 adults per leaf in a random 30-leaf sample of healthy leaves. Thresholds have not yet been established for greenhouse whitefly.
If whiteflies are present, consider treating with imidacloprid when transplanting or at the seedling stage for direct-seeded plants. Insecticidal soaps and oils are not as effective as the other materials and require frequent application and good coverage. Be sure the spray application covers the undersides of leaves to contact whiteflies.
Pesticides and Natural Enemy Releases
Not all registered pesticides are listed. The following are ranked by their IPM value, with the most effective and least harmful to natural enemies, honey bees, and the environment listed at the top of the table. When choosing a pesticide, consider information related to water and air quality, resistance management, and the pesticide's properties and application timing. Use PestManage to compare summarized management options for different pests in the same crop. Always carefully read the label of the product being used and take all necessary precautions when handling pesticides.
| Rank | Active ingredient | Example trade name | Group | Group Order | MoA 1 | Amount per acre | REI (hours) ‡ | PHI (days) ‡ | Comments | Selectivity 2 | Bees 3 | Predatory mites 4 | Predators 5 | Parasitoids 5 | Residue duration 6 | Leaching(fish) 7 | Adsorbed runoff(fish) 8 | Solution runoff(fish) 9 | Leaching(human) 10 | Solution runoff(human) 11 | Last updated 12 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
Assail 70WP | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
4A |
1.1–1.7 oz | 12 | 7 | Apply in a minimum finished spray volume... | moderate | — 13 | — 14 | — | moderate | very low | very low | low | very low | low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Exirel | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
28 |
13.5–20.5 fl oz | 12 | 1 | Highly toxic to bees; do not spray direc... | narrow | — | — | — | — | very low | very low | low | low | low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Verimark | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
28 |
6.7–10 fl oz | 4 | 1 | Highly toxic to bees; do not spray direc... | narrow | — | — | — | — | very low | very low | low | low | low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Venom | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
4A |
1–4 oz | 12 | 1 | Toxic to bees; do not spray directly or... | narrow | low | — | low | short | very low | low | low | very low | low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Venom | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
4A |
5–6 oz | 12 | 21 | Toxic to bees; do not spray directly or... | narrow | low | — | low | short | very low | low | low | very low | low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Admire Pro | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
4A |
7–14 fl oz | 12 | 21 | Apply as a soil application according to... | narrow | — | low | low | long | — | — | — | — | — | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Organic JMS Stylet-Oil # | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
UNM |
1% solution or less | 4 | 0 | Narrow range oils require frequent appli... | broad | low 15 | low | low | short | very low | low | very low | very low | very low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
M-Pede # | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
— |
1% solution or less | 12 | 0 | Insecticidal soap has no residual and re... | broad | moderate | moderate | moderate | short | low | intermediate | intermediate | very low | low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Knack | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
7C |
8–10 fl oz | 12 | 1 | An insect growth regulator that is not h... | narrow | low | high 16 | low | short | low | low | high | very low | very low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Oberon 2 SC | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
23 |
7.0–8.5 fl oz | 12 | 1 | — | narrow | — | — | — | — | intermediate | low | extra high | very low | very low | 06/2016 | ||
|
|
Movento | Application Timing Varies (See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines and Label) | 8 |
23 |
4.0–5.0 fl oz | 24 | 1 | — | narrow | — | — | — | — | low | very low | low | very low | low | 06/2016 |
Legend
- ‡ a b Restricted entry interval (REI) is the number of hours (unless otherwise noted) from treatment until the treated area can be safely entered without personal protective equipment. Preharvest interval (PHI) is the number of days from treatment to harvest. In some cases, the REI exceeds the PHI. The longer of the two intervals is the minimum time that must elapse before harvest.
- # a b Acceptable for use on certified organic crops. Check with your certifier to confirm before application.
- 1 ↩ Group numbers for insecticides and miticides are assigned by the Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC). Insecticides with unknown modes of action are assigned mode-of-action group numbers (MoAs) that begin with UN. Rotate pesticides with a different mode-of-action group number, and do not use products with the same mode-of-action group number more than twice per season to help prevent the development of resistance. For example, the organophosphates have a group number of 1B; insecticides with a 1B group number should be alternated with insecticides that have a group number other than 1B.
- 2 ↩ Range of insect and mite groups affected by a pesticide. Broad means the pesticide affects most groups of insects and mites; narrow means the pesticide affects only a few specific groups.
- 3 ↩ Risk of harm to honey bees. For more information, see Bee Precaution Pesticide Ratings.
- 4 ↩ Risk of harm to predatory mites. Toxicities are generally to western predatory mite, Galendromus occidentalis. Where differences have been measured in toxicity of the pesticide-resistant strain versus the native strain, these are listed as pesticide-resistant strain or native strain.
- 5 a b Risk of harm to parasitoids and general predators. Toxicities are averages of reported effects and should be used only as a general guide. Actual toxicity of a specific insecticide depends on factors including the application rate, environmental conditions, and the life stage and species of a parasitoid or predator.
- 6 ↩ Length of time residue affects natural enemies. Short means hours to days; moderate means days to 2 weeks; and long means many weeks or months.
- 7 ↩ Risk of harm to fish from leaching, based on USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Windows Pesticide Screening Tool (WIN-PST).
- 8 ↩ Risk of harm to fish from adsorbed runoff, based on USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Windows Pesticide Screening Tool (WIN-PST).
- 9 ↩ Risk of harm to fish from solution runoff, based on USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Windows Pesticide Screening Tool (WIN-PST).
- 10 ↩ Risk of harm to humans from leaching, based on USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Windows Pesticide Screening Tool (WIN-PST).
- 11 ↩ Risk of harm to humans from solution runoff, based on USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Windows Pesticide Screening Tool (WIN-PST).
- 12 ↩ Date information was last updated in the UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines.
- 13 ↩ May cause an increase in spider mite numbers.
- 14 ↩ Acute toxicity is low but reproductive capacity is reduced.
- 15 ↩ Rating depends on application rate used.
- 16 ↩ Kills lady beetles.
UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Peppers
UC ANR Publication 3460
E.T. Natwick (emeritus), UC Cooperative Extension Imperial County
J.T. Trumble, Entomology, UC Riverside
J.L. Aguiar, UC Cooperative Extension Riverside County
Acknowledgement for Contributions to Invertebrates
W.J. Bentley (emeritus), UC IPM and Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Parlier
W.E. Chaney (emeritus), UC Cooperative Extension Monterey County
R.L. Coviello, UC Cooperative Extension Fresno County
C.F. Fouche, UC Cooperative Extension San Joaquin County
C.G. Summers (emeritus), Entomology, UC Davis and Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Parlier
